Molecular Detection and Genetic Diversity of Cytomegaloviruses and Lymphocryptoviruses in Free-Roaming and Captive African Green Monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus).

To date, limited information is available on cytomegalovirus (CMV) and lymphocryptovirus (LCV) from Chlorocebus monkeys. We report here high detection rates of herpesviruses in free-roaming African green monkeys (AGMs, Chlorocebus sabaeus) (26.4%, 23/87) and in captive AGMs (75%, 3/4) with respiratory disease on the Caribbean Island of St. Kitts. LCV (81.25%) was more prevalent than CMV (18.75%) in the AGMs. Applying a bigenic PCR approach (targeting DNA polymerase (DPOL) and glycoprotein B (gB) genes), long sequences were obtained from representative AGM CMV (KNA-SD6) and LCV (KNA-E4, -N6 and -R15) samples, and mixed LCV infections were identified in KNA-N6 and -R15. The nucleotide (nt) sequence (partial DPOL-intergenic region-partial gB) and partial DPOL- and gB-amino acid (aa) sequences of AGM CMV KNA-SD6 were closely related to Cytomegalovirus cercopithecinebeta5 isolates from grivet monkeys, whilst those of AGM LCV KNA-E4 and -N6 (and E4-like gB of KNA-R15) were more closely related to cognate sequences of erythrocebus patas LCV1 from patas monkey than other LCVs, corroborating the concept of cospeciation in the evolution of CMV/LCV. On the other hand, the partial DPOL aa sequence of KNA-R15, and additional gB sequences (N6-gB-2 and R15-gB-2) from samples KNA-N6 and -R15 (respectively) appeared to be distinct from those of Old World monkey LCVs, indicating LCV evolutionary patterns that were not synchronous with those of host species. The present study is the first to report the molecular prevalence and genetic diversity of CMV/LCV from free-roaming/wild and captive AGMs, and is the first report on analysis of CMV nt/deduced aa sequences from AGMs and LCV gB sequences from Chlorocebus monkeys.

Detection and Molecular Characterization of Adenoviruses in Captive and Free-Roaming African Green Monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus): Evidence for Possible Recombination and Cross-Species Transmission.

In the present study, 31 samples (12 fecal, 9 nasal and 10 rectal swabs) from 28/92 (30.43%, 10 captive and 18 free-roaming African green monkeys (AGMs, Chlorocebus sabaeus)) apparently healthy AGMs in the Caribbean Island of St. Kitts tested positive for adenoviruses (AdVs) by DNA-dependent DNA polymerase (pol)-, or hexon-based screening PCR assays. Based on analysis of partial deduced amino acid sequences of Pol- and hexon- of nine AGM AdVs, at least two AdV genetic variants (group-I: seven AdVs with a Simian mastadenovirus-F (SAdV-F)/SAdV-18-like Pol and hexon, and group-II: two AdVs with a SAdV-F/SAdV-18-like Pol and a Human mastadenovirus-F (HAdV-F)/HAdV-40-like hexon) were identified, which was corroborated by analysis of the nearly complete putative Pol, complete hexon, and partial penton base sequences of a representative group-I (strain KNA-08975), and -II (KNA-S6) AdV. SAdV-F-like AdVs were reported for the first time in free-roaming non-human primates (NHPs) and after ~six decades from captive NHPs. Molecular characterization of KNA-S6 (and the other group-II AdV) indicated possible recombination and cross-species transmission events involving SAdV-F-like and HAdV-F-like viruses, corroborating the hypothesis that the evolutionary pathways of HAdVs and SAdVs are intermingled, complicated by recombination and inter-species transmission events, especially between related AdV species, such as HAdV-F and SAdV-F. To our knowledge, this is the first report on detection and molecular characterization of AdVs in AGMs.

Travel medicine meets conservation medicine in St. Kitts: Disinhibition, cognitive-affective inconsistency, and disease risk among vacationers around green monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus).

Despite concern about environmental protection, travelers often underestimate the contribution they may have to disease transmission to other species, as well as the risk of becoming infected themselves. Tourists in general tend to accept more physical risks when traveling than when at home, and much of this can be blamed on the temporary loss of situational awareness and loss of inhibition with a corresponding relaxed attitude toward safety. To better understand environmental attitudes and travel health knowledge and behaviors, a detailed survey of adult tourists was distributed on the island of St. Kitts, home to many green monkeys. Data from 1097 respondents were collected at two locations where cruise ship passengers typically visit the island. Results revealed that even though individuals with more positive environmental attitudes were more willing to take steps to mitigate tourism-related disease transmission, they were also more likely to report wanting to touch or feed a monkey/ape. Similarly, those more willing to prevent the spread of diseases (e.g., wear a mask and report any illnesses to park authorities) were actually more likely to want to touch or feed a monkey/ape. The human desire for physical contact with other species may be partly the result of biophilia, emotionally arousing events (like contact with exotic species) that can lead to further disinhibition, and social media platforms that provide opportunities for exhibitionism. The attitude-behavior incongruency identified here may also be explained through cognitive-affective inconsistency: environmentally-oriented individuals believe that it is prudent to take steps to prevent zoonotic disease transmission but also desire to touch or feed exotic species as it may be emotionally rewarding. Individuals for whom physically interacting with monkeys/apes may be emotionally rewarding may not alter their behavior in response to cognitive means of persuasion; techniques aimed at appealing to emotions may be more effective.

Correction to: Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates.

In the original publication of the article, figure 1 was wrongly published as a duplication.

Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates.

Over the past 20 years, GPS collars have emerged as powerful tools for the study of nonhuman primate (hereafter, "primate") movement ecology. As the size and cost of GPS collars have decreased and performance has improved, it is timely to review the use and success of GPS collar deployments on primates to date. Here we compile data on deployments and performance of GPS collars by brand and examine how these relate to characteristics of the primate species and field contexts in which they were deployed. The compiled results of 179 GPS collar deployments across 17 species by 16 research teams show these technologies can provide advantages, particularly in adding to the quality, quantity, and temporal span of data collection. However, aspects of this technology still require substantial improvement in order to make deployment on many primate species pragmatic economically. In particular, current limitations regarding battery lifespan relative to collar weight, the efficacy of remote drop-off mechanisms, and the ability to remotely retrieve data need to be addressed before the technology is likely to be widely adopted. Moreover, despite the increasing utility of GPS collars in the field, they remain substantially more expensive than VHF collars and tracking via handheld GPS units, and cost considerations of GPS collars may limit sample sizes and thereby the strength of inferences. Still, the overall high quality and quantity of data obtained, combined with the reduced need for on-the-ground tracking by field personnel, may help defray the high equipment cost. We argue that primatologists armed with the information in this review have much to gain from the recent, substantial improvements in GPS collar technology.

Ethnographic Approaches in Primatology.

The shared evolutionary histories and anatomical similarities between humans and non-human primates create dynamic interconnections between these alloprimates. In this foreword to Folia Primatologica's special issue on "Ethnographic Approaches in Primatology," we review the ethnographic method and existing literature at the intersection of primatology and ethnography. We summarize, compare and contrast the 5 contributions to this special issue to highlight why the human-non-human primate interface is a compelling area to investigate via ethnographic approaches and to encourage increased incorporation of ethnography into the discipline of primatology. Ethnography is a valuable and increasingly popular tool with its use no longer limited to anthropological practitioners investigating traditional, non-Western peoples. Scholars from many disciplines now use ethnographic methods to investigate all members of our globalised world, including non-humans. As our closest living relatives, non-human primates (hereafter "primates") are compelling subjects and thus appear in a range of contexts within ethnographic investigations. The goal of this special issue is to highlight the trajectory of research at the intersection of primatology and ethnography and to illustrate the importance of ethnographic methods for the advancement of primatology as a discipline.

Identity Construction and Symbolic Association in Farmer-Vervet Monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus) Interconnections in St. Kitts.

Primates occupy a liminal space between humans and animals. On the Caribbean island of St. Kitts, translocated vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus) are respected creatures, yet they cause problems. Vervets regularly consume crops on farms and are considered "pests"; still, Kittitians express empathy and understanding for them based largely on the monkeys' display of human-like behaviours. Using data from interviews with 64 Kittitian farmers, we deconstruct the symbolism of the vervet monkey in St. Kitts and analyse how farmers give the monkeys identities that are meaningful only within human social expectations. Our findings reveal that Kittitian farmers consider monkeys to be clever and emotive, displaying complex intentions such as revenge and remorse. Yet, crop-foraging behaviour is a regular and negative experience for the majority of farmers in this study, and the monkeys' presence itself is a constant reminder of the multitude of challenges farmers face in a newly adopted tourism economy that no longer prioritises agriculture. Our results reveal that while vervet crop consumption is a significant problem in St. Kitts, it is the monkeys' boundary-crossing status that drives the growing mentality that "the monkey problem" is completely out of control.

Detection of picobirnaviruses in vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus): Molecular characterization of complete genomic segment-2.

During 2014-2015, 270 fecal samples were collected from non-diarrheic, captive and wild African green monkeys (AGMs) on the island of St. Kitts, Caribbean region. By RNA-PAGE, picobirnaviruses (PBVs) were detected in sixteen captive AGMs. By RT-PCR and sequencing of partial gene segment-2, PBVs in 15 of these 16 samples were assigned to genogroup-I. The full-length nucleotide (nt) sequence of gene segment-2 of one of the genogroup-I PBV strains, strain PBV/African green monkey/KNA/016593/2015, was obtained using a non-specific primer-based amplification method with modifications. Gene segment-2 of strain 016593 was 1707bp long, and encoded a putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of 538aa. Furthermore, the nearly complete gene segment-2 sequences of three other AGM PBV strains were determined using primers designed from gene segment-2 sequence of 016593. The gene segment-2 of the 4 AGM PBV strains were almost identical to each other, and exhibited a high degree of genetic diversity (maximum nt and deduced aa sequence identities of 66.4% and 65.3%, respectively) with those of PBVs from other host species. The 5'- and 3'- (except for one mismatch) end nt sequences and the three domains of RdRps were retained in the AGM PBV strains. To our knowledge, this is the first report on detection, and molecular characterization of complete gene segment-2 of PBVs in vervet monkeys. PBVs were detected for the first time from the Caribbean region.